in 4 volumes. 1854-1856. by Mrs William Busk. 

The 12th century was characterized by significant political fragmentation and power struggles in Europe, particularly between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire. Italy experienced a division of authority, with the Normans asserting control over Apulia and the Papal States facing challenges from the emperors. The Crusades led to the conquest of Jerusalem, resulting in substantial loss of life and the establishment of Crusader governance, while civil strife in Germany and the emergence of powerful local rulers in Spain further complicated the political landscape.